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categories: ["bodies"]categories: ["bodies"]tags: ["bioprinting", "tissue engineering", "vascularization", "regenerative medicine", "transplantation", "biofabrication"]tags: ["bioprinting", "tissue engineering", "vascularization", "regenerative medicine", "transplantation", "biofabrication"]summary: "The additive manufacture of living tissue by depositing cells and biomaterials in a programmed pattern, pursued as a route to transplantable organs but limited so far to simple structures."summary: "The additive manufacture of living tissue by depositing cells and biomaterials in a programmed pattern, pursued as a route to transplantable organs but limited so far to simple structures."updated: "2026-07-27"updated: "2026-10-29"humanEvidence: "A printed autologous ear cartilage implant has been placed in patients in a microtia trial and printed skin has reached early human work; no printed solid organ has been implanted in a person or supported an animal."humanEvidence: "A printed autologous ear cartilage implant has been placed in patients in a microtia trial and printed skin has reached early human work; no printed solid organ has been implanted in a person or supported an animal."access: "Nothing to obtain: printed tissue is sold only as a research and drug-screening product, and the sole human implants are inside small company-run trials."access: "Nothing to obtain: printed tissue is sold only as a research and drug-screening product, and the sole human implants are inside small company-run trials."reversibility: "difficult"reversibility: "difficult"lines 31–37 → 31–3716 unchanged lines not shown
}}`````` **Organ bioprinting** is the additive manufacture of living tissue: a machine deposits cells, hydrogels and sacrificial support materials in a programmed three-dimensional pattern, and the construct is then cultured until the cells remodel it into something with tissue-like structure and function. The technique borrows its motion control from industrial 3D printing and its biology from [[tissue-engineering]]. It has produced skin, cartilage, corneal stroma, vascular grafts and beating cardiac patches in the laboratory. It has not produced a solid organ that anyone has transplanted into a person, and the gap between those two statements is the subject of this article.**Organ bioprinting** is the additive manufacture of living tissue: a machine deposits cells, hydrogels and sacrificial support materials in a programmed three-dimensional pattern, and the construct is then cultured until the cells remodel it into something with tissue-like structure and function. The technique borrows its motion control from industrial 3D printing and its biology from [[tissue-engineering]]. In the laboratory it has produced skin, cartilage, corneal stroma, vascular grafts and beating cardiac patches. It has not produced a solid organ that anyone has transplanted into a person, and most of what follows concerns why. ```keyfacts```keyfacts[[lines 42–65 → 42–654 unchanged lines not shown
`````` ```figure```figure{"key": "organovo-bioprinter", "caption": "Depositing cells accurately has never been the bottleneck. Keeping printed tissue alive beyond a millimetre from a nutrient supply is."}{"key": "organovo-bioprinter", "caption": "The bottleneck has never been depositing cells accurately. It is keeping printed tissue alive beyond a millimetre from a nutrient supply."}`````` ## How it works## How it works A bioprinter converts a digital model, usually derived from a patient's CT or MRI scan, into a toolpath and then lays down material along it. Three deposition families dominate.A bioprinter converts a digital model, usually derived from a patient's CT or MRI scan, into a toolpath and then lays down material along it. Three families of deposition method dominate. **Extrusion printing** pushes a viscous cell-laden gel through a nozzle by pneumatic pressure or a screw. It is the workhorse: cheap, tolerant of high cell densities, compatible with most hydrogels. Its weaknesses are resolution, typically a few hundred micrometres, and shear stress at the nozzle, which damages cells. Extrusion also cannot print an unsupported soft gel — a low-stiffness ink collapses under its own weight. The standard answer is embedded printing, in which the nozzle deposits into a supporting bath of granular gel that behaves as a solid at rest and yields locally around the moving needle. The FRESH method developed in Adam Feinberg's laboratory uses a gelatin microparticle slurry for this and was used to print collagen replicas of heart valves and a neonatal-scale ventricle that contracted when seeded with cardiomyocytes.[^lee2019]**Extrusion printing** pushes a viscous cell-laden gel through a nozzle by pneumatic pressure or a screw. It is the workhorse of the field: cheap, tolerant of high cell densities, and compatible with most hydrogels. Its weaknesses are resolution, typically a few hundred micrometres, and shear stress at the nozzle, which damages cells. Extrusion also cannot print an unsupported soft gel, because a low-stiffness ink collapses under its own weight. The standard answer is embedded printing, in which the nozzle deposits into a supporting bath of granular gel that behaves as a solid at rest and yields locally around the moving needle. The FRESH method developed in Adam Feinberg's laboratory uses a gelatin microparticle slurry for this. It was used to print collagen replicas of heart valves and a neonatal-scale ventricle that contracted when seeded with cardiomyocytes.[^lee2019] **Droplet and inkjet printing** eject picolitre droplets of low-viscosity cell suspension. Resolution is better and cell damage lower, but the constructs are mechanically weak and the technique struggles with anything thick.**Droplet and inkjet printing** eject picolitre droplets of low-viscosity cell suspension. Resolution is better and cell damage lower, but the constructs are mechanically weak and the technique struggles with anything thick. **Light-based printing** cures a photosensitive resin with patterned light. Digital light processing projects an entire layer at once, which is fast and precise; two-photon polymerization reaches sub-micrometre features but is far too slow for organ-scale volumes. Volumetric printing, in which tomographic light projections are rotated around a resin vial so that a whole object solidifies at once where the accumulated dose crosses a threshold, produces centimetre-scale constructs in tens of seconds and avoids layering artefacts altogether.[^bernal2019] A landmark demonstration used food-colouring dyes as biocompatible photoabsorbers to print hydrogels containing intertwined, topologically independent vascular networks, including an air-sac model that oxygenated human red blood cells flowing past it during cyclic ventilation.[^grigoryan2019]**Light-based printing** cures a photosensitive resin with patterned light. Digital light processing projects an entire layer at once, which is fast and precise; two-photon polymerization reaches sub-micrometre features but is far too slow for organ-scale volumes. In volumetric printing, tomographic light projections are rotated around a resin vial so that a whole object solidifies at once wherever the accumulated dose crosses a threshold. The method produces centimetre-scale constructs in tens of seconds and avoids layering artefacts altogether.[^bernal2019] A landmark demonstration used food-colouring dyes as biocompatible photoabsorbers to print hydrogels containing intertwined, topologically independent vascular networks. One of them was an air-sac model that oxygenated human red blood cells flowing past it during cyclic ventilation.[^grigoryan2019] ### Bioinks### Bioinks A bioink must satisfy contradictory requirements. It has to flow through a nozzle or cure under light, hold its shape afterwards, stay soft enough for cells to remodel, degrade at the rate new matrix is deposited, and be non-toxic throughout. Common bases are alginate, gelatin methacryloyl, fibrin, collagen I, hyaluronic acid, and decellularized extracellular matrix digested from donor tissue, which brings tissue-specific composition at the cost of batch variability. See [[decellularized-scaffolds]] for that material family.The requirements on a bioink pull against one another. It has to flow through a nozzle or cure under light, hold its shape afterwards, stay soft enough for cells to remodel, degrade at the rate new matrix is deposited, and be non-toxic throughout. Common bases are alginate, gelatin methacryloyl, fibrin, collagen I, hyaluronic acid, and decellularized extracellular matrix digested from donor tissue, which brings tissue-specific composition at the cost of batch variability. That material family is covered in [[decellularized-scaffolds]]. The deeper problem is cell density. Native solid tissue packs cells at roughly a hundred million per millilitre; a printable gel usually carries one to two orders of magnitude fewer, because at high density the ink loses printability and the cells lose oxygen. One workaround inverts the usual arrangement: rather than printing cells in a gel, the SWIFT approach compacts organoid-derived cells into a dense living matrix and prints only the sacrificial vascular network into it, then washes the sacrificial ink out to leave perfusable channels.[^skylarscott2019] The tissue is the bulk; the print is the plumbing.The deeper problem is cell density. Native solid tissue packs cells at roughly a hundred million per millilitre. A printable gel usually carries one to two orders of magnitude fewer, because at high density the ink loses printability and the cells lose oxygen. One workaround inverts the usual arrangement. Instead of printing cells in a gel, the SWIFT approach compacts organoid-derived cells into a dense living matrix and prints only the sacrificial vascular network into it, then washes the sacrificial ink out to leave perfusable channels.[^skylarscott2019] The living tissue makes up the bulk of the construct, and the printer supplies only the plumbing. ## Development history## Development history lines 70–119 → 70–1194 unchanged lines not shown
{ "year": "2012", "title": "Sacrificial vasculature", "text": "Jordan Miller and colleagues print lattices of carbohydrate glass, cast tissue around them and dissolve them away, leaving open perfusable channels inside a cell-laden gel." }, { "year": "2012", "title": "Sacrificial vasculature", "text": "Jordan Miller and colleagues print lattices of carbohydrate glass, cast tissue around them and dissolve them away, leaving open perfusable channels inside a cell-laden gel." }, { "year": "2019", "title": "Three converging advances", "text": "Embedded collagen printing produces heart components; tomographic light projection prints centimetre-scale objects in seconds; entangled multivascular networks are printed in a single monolithic gel." }, { "year": "2019", "title": "Three converging advances", "text": "Embedded collagen printing produces heart components; tomographic light projection prints centimetre-scale objects in seconds; entangled multivascular networks are printed in a single monolithic gel." }, { "year": "2022", "title": "First printed implant in a trial", "text": "3DBio Therapeutics implants an ear reconstructed from a patient's own chondrocytes in a microtia clinical trial, the first bioprinted living implant placed in a person under regulatory oversight." }, { "year": "2022", "title": "First printed implant in a trial", "text": "3DBio Therapeutics implants an ear reconstructed from a patient's own chondrocytes in a microtia clinical trial, the first bioprinted living implant placed in a person under regulatory oversight." }, { "year": "2023–2026", "title": "Industrialization without organs", "text": "Bioprinted tissue moves into drug screening and into partnerships with pharmaceutical firms for implantable therapeutic tissues; no solid organ reaches the clinic." } { "year": "2023-2026", "title": "Industrialization without organs", "text": "Bioprinted tissue moves into drug screening and into partnerships with pharmaceutical firms for implantable therapeutic tissues; no solid organ reaches the clinic." }]]`````` ## What has actually been implanted## What has actually been implanted The honest inventory is short and consists of tissues that are thin, avascular, or both.The list of implanted printed tissues is short, and every entry on it is thin, avascular, or both. Printed cartilage has reached patients. An ear scaffold printed from a patient's expanded chondrocytes was implanted in a microtia trial beginning in 2022; cartilage is a natural first target because it is avascular, mechanically simple and immunologically quiet when autologous. Printed skin substitutes have been tested in animals and in early human work, including handheld and robot-mounted devices that deposit cells directly onto a wound bed. Printed bone-graft substitutes and airway splints exist, but most of these are acellular polymer devices produced by conventional 3D printing rather than bioprinting proper, and the distinction matters: a resorbable printed splint is a device, while a construct containing living cells is regulated as a biologic or a combination product.Printed cartilage has reached patients. An ear scaffold printed from a patient's expanded chondrocytes was implanted in a microtia trial beginning in 2022. Cartilage is a natural first target because it is avascular, mechanically simple and immunologically quiet when autologous. Printed skin substitutes have been tested in animals and in early human work, including handheld and robot-mounted devices that deposit cells directly onto a wound bed. Printed bone-graft substitutes and airway splints also exist, but most of these are acellular polymer devices made by conventional 3D printing rather than bioprinting proper. The distinction has regulatory weight: a resorbable printed splint is a device, while a construct containing living cells is regulated as a biologic or a combination product. Bioprinting hardware has also been flown to the International Space Station, on the reasoning that in microgravity a soft construct holds its shape without a support bath. The samples produced there are small, and the motivation overlaps with the broader interest in manufacturing medical supplies far from resupply described in [[space-medicine]].Bioprinting hardware has also been flown to the International Space Station, on the reasoning that in microgravity a soft construct holds its shape without a support bath. The samples produced there are small. The motivation overlaps with the broader interest, described in [[space-medicine]], in manufacturing medical supplies far from resupply. Everything organ-shaped remains a laboratory object. A widely reported 2019 construct from Tal Dvir's group at Tel Aviv University, printed from a patient's cells in a bioink derived from their own omentum, was about the size of a cherry, had the gross anatomy of a heart, and did not pump.[^noor2019] The FRESH collagen ventricle contracted but produced negligible pressure. No printed kidney, liver or heart has supported an animal, let alone a person. Where whole-organ replacement has actually reached patients, it has done so through [[xenotransplantation]] or through mechanical substitutes such as the [[artificial-heart]], not through printing; the competing strategy of growing an organ from cells rather than depositing it is treated in [[lab-grown-organs]].Everything organ-shaped remains a laboratory object. In 2019 Tal Dvir's group at Tel Aviv University printed a widely reported construct from a patient's cells, in a bioink derived from the same patient's omentum; it was about the size of a cherry, had the gross anatomy of a heart, and did not pump.[^noor2019] The FRESH collagen ventricle contracted but produced negligible pressure. No printed kidney, liver or heart has supported an animal, let alone a person. Where whole-organ replacement has reached patients, it has done so through [[xenotransplantation]] or through mechanical substitutes such as the [[artificial-heart]], not through printing. The competing strategy of growing an organ from cells rather than depositing it is treated in [[lab-grown-organs]]. > [!caution] What "printed a heart" means> [!caution] What "printed a heart" means> Press coverage of bioprinting routinely reports the geometry as though it were the achievement. Printing the shape of an organ is a solved problem; a desktop machine can do it in a day. Producing tissue with the correct cell types, in the correct densities, arranged around a perfused vascular tree, at a mechanical and metabolic standard that keeps a human alive, is unsolved and not close to solved.> Press coverage of bioprinting routinely reports the geometry as though it were the achievement. Printing the shape of an organ is a solved problem, and a desktop machine can do it in a day. The unsolved problem, and one that is not close to being solved, is producing tissue with the correct cell types, in the correct densities, arranged around a perfused vascular tree, to a mechanical and metabolic standard that keeps a human alive. ## The vascularization bottleneck## The vascularization bottleneck Every cell in a solid organ sits within roughly a hundred to two hundred micrometres of a capillary, because that is how far oxygen diffuses through tissue before consumption exhausts it. Any construct thicker than about a millimetre without internal perfusion develops a necrotic core within days. This single constraint explains the field's shape: the tissues that work clinically are sheets and small pieces, and the tissues that do not work are everything else.Every cell in a solid organ sits within roughly a hundred to two hundred micrometres of a capillary, because that is how far oxygen diffuses through tissue before consumption exhausts it. Any construct thicker than about a millimetre without internal perfusion develops a necrotic core within days. This one constraint accounts for the shape of the field: the tissues that work clinically are sheets and small pieces, and the tissues that do not work are everything else. Printed vascular networks solve part of the problem and expose the rest. Current printers resolve channels down to a few hundred micrometres reliably and to tens of micrometres in specialised light-based systems. Human capillaries are five to ten micrometres across, branch across roughly a dozen generations, and in a kidney or liver form a network whose total surface area is measured in tens of square metres. No printing process approaches that resolution at organ scale in an acceptable time. The prevailing strategy is therefore hybrid: print the large and medium vessels, seed them with endothelial cells, and rely on angiogenic sprouting from those vessels to build the capillary bed biologically. Whether self-assembly can reliably complete a network that a printer starts, and do so before the tissue starves, is the central open question.Printed vascular networks solve part of the problem and expose the rest. Current printers reliably resolve channels down to a few hundred micrometres, and specialised light-based systems reach tens of micrometres. Human capillaries are five to ten micrometres across and branch across roughly a dozen generations; in a kidney or liver they form a network whose total surface area is measured in tens of square metres. No printing process approaches that resolution at organ scale in an acceptable time. The prevailing strategy is therefore hybrid: print the large and medium vessels, seed them with endothelial cells, and rely on angiogenic sprouting from those vessels to build the capillary bed biologically. The central open question is whether self-assembly can reliably complete a network that a printer starts, and do so before the tissue starves. Perfusion also has to be surgically connectable. A printed construct needs an inlet and an outlet that a surgeon can anastomose to the recipient's circulation, with wall strength sufficient to hold arterial pressure and an endothelial lining continuous enough not to trigger clotting. An incompletely endothelialized channel thromboses, which is the same failure mode that defeated recellularized donor scaffolds and that limits [[artificial-blood]] and mechanical circulatory support.Perfusion also has to be surgically connectable. A printed construct needs an inlet and an outlet that a surgeon can anastomose to the recipient's circulation. Their walls must be strong enough to hold arterial pressure, and their endothelial lining continuous enough not to trigger clotting. An incompletely endothelialized channel thromboses. The same failure mode defeated recellularized donor scaffolds and limits [[artificial-blood]] and mechanical circulatory support. ## Limitations and risks## Limitations and risks **Cell supply.** A human-scale solid organ contains cells on the order of ten to a hundred billion. Sourcing them autologously from [[induced-pluripotent-stem-cells]] means months of expansion and differentiation per patient at high cost, on a timescale incompatible with acute organ failure. Allogeneic cells shorten the timeline but reintroduce immunosuppression, which is much of what a grown organ was supposed to avoid. Where the organ failed because of an inherited defect, the patient's own cells carry that defect and must be corrected before printing, adding the manufacturing burden of [[somatic-gene-therapy]] to the tissue problem.**Cell supply.** A human-scale solid organ contains on the order of ten to a hundred billion cells. Sourcing them autologously from [[induced-pluripotent-stem-cells]] means months of expansion and differentiation per patient, at high cost and on a timescale incompatible with acute organ failure. Allogeneic cells shorten the timeline but bring back immunosuppression, which is much of what a grown organ was supposed to avoid. Where the organ failed because of an inherited defect, the patient's own cells carry that defect and must be corrected before printing, which adds the manufacturing burden of [[somatic-gene-therapy]] to the tissue problem. **Maturation.** Printed tissue starts fetal-like. Cardiomyocytes derived from stem cells contract weakly and lack adult calcium handling; hepatocytes lose function within days in culture. Maturation requires mechanical and electrical conditioning in bioreactors over weeks, and it is incomplete. The same immaturity ceiling constrains [[organoids]].**Maturation.** Printed tissue starts out fetal-like. Cardiomyocytes derived from stem cells contract weakly and lack adult calcium handling, and hepatocytes lose function within days in culture. Maturation requires weeks of mechanical and electrical conditioning in bioreactors, and even then it is incomplete. The same immaturity ceiling constrains [[organoids]]. **Quality control and regulation.** A printed organ is a patient-specific manufactured product, which sits awkwardly in regulatory frameworks built either for mass-produced devices or for standardized biologics. Regulators have issued guidance on additive manufacturing of devices while explicitly leaving cell-containing products outside its scope. Sterility, potency assays, batch release testing and shelf life all have to be defined for a product with a batch size of one.**Quality control and regulation.** A printed organ is a patient-specific manufactured product. It fits awkwardly into regulatory frameworks built either for mass-produced devices or for standardized biologics. Regulators have issued guidance on additive manufacturing of devices while explicitly leaving cell-containing products outside its scope. Sterility, potency assays, batch release testing and shelf life all have to be defined for a product with a batch size of one. **Tumorigenicity.** Constructs built from pluripotent-derived cells carry residual risk of undifferentiated cells forming teratomas, the same hazard that constrains [[epigenetic-reprogramming]] and stem-cell therapies generally.**Tumorigenicity.** Constructs built from pluripotent-derived cells carry a residual risk that undifferentiated cells form teratomas. The same hazard constrains [[epigenetic-reprogramming]] and stem-cell therapies generally. **Cost and equity.** If a printed organ works, it would initially be expensive and produced by a small number of facilities. The distribution problem that follows is not technical, and [[access-and-inequality]] applies to it in full.**Cost and equity.** A printed organ that worked would at first be expensive and produced by a small number of facilities. The resulting distribution problem would be a social one rather than a technical one, and the concerns in [[access-and-inequality]] apply to it in full. Measured on the scale set out in [[technology-readiness-level]], the field spans an unusual range: printed skin and cartilage sit near clinical validation, printed vascularized organs remain at proof of concept, and the two are routinely reported under the same heading.Measured on the scale set out in [[technology-readiness-level]], the field spans an unusual range. Printed skin and cartilage sit near clinical validation, printed vascularized organs remain at proof of concept, and the two are routinely reported under the same heading. ## Outlook## Outlook The near-term commercial reality of bioprinting is not transplantation but tissue models: printed liver, kidney and tumour tissue used for toxicology and drug screening, a market that grew as regulators softened the requirement for animal testing in some drug categories. Therapeutic products under active development are small and encapsulated — printed islet constructs for type 1 diabetes, printed cartilage, printed nerve conduits, printed corneal tissue — where a few cubic centimetres of tissue can do clinical work without a vascular tree.In the near term, bioprinting's commercial use is tissue models rather than transplantation. Printed liver, kidney and tumour tissue is used for toxicology and drug screening, a market that grew as regulators softened the requirement for animal testing in some drug categories. The therapeutic products under active development are small and encapsulated: printed islet constructs for type 1 diabetes, printed cartilage, printed nerve conduits and printed corneal tissue. In each, a few cubic centimetres of tissue can do clinical work without a vascular tree. For solid organs, several groups now argue that printing will not be the fabrication method at all, but the scaffolding method: printing the vasculature and letting cells build the parenchyma. That reframing makes the problem tractable in principle and leaves it hard in practice, and it borrows its logic from developmental biology rather than manufacturing — the same logic that makes the study of animals capable of [[limb-regeneration]] relevant to a discipline built around machine tools. A useful benchmark for the field's honesty is that no printed construct has yet supported a large animal's physiology for a month. Until one does, timelines for a printed kidney rest on extrapolation rather than evidence, and the [[organ-shortage]] that motivates the whole enterprise continues to be addressed by donation reform, machine perfusion and edited pigs.For solid organs, several groups now argue that printing will end up as the scaffolding method rather than the fabrication method, laying down the vasculature and letting cells build the parenchyma. That reframing makes the problem tractable in principle while leaving it hard in practice. It takes its logic from developmental biology rather than manufacturing, and the same logic makes the study of animals capable of [[limb-regeneration]] relevant to a discipline built around machine tools. One benchmark of the field's honesty is that no printed construct has yet supported a large animal's physiology for a month. Until one does, timelines for a printed kidney rest on extrapolation rather than evidence, and the [[organ-shortage]] that motivates the whole enterprise continues to be addressed by donation reform, machine perfusion and edited pigs. ## See also## See also removed, struck through added, underlinedLine numbers count the serialised markdown of each revision, frontmatter included.
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